climate change cannot be reversedword for someone who lifts others up

2017517). In: Agroforestry Systems in India: Livelihood Security &Environmental Services Advances in Agroforestry [Dagar,J.C.,A.K. 20111431; Cour 20011432; Dahiya 20121433). The number of desertification processes is large and they are extensively covered elsewhere (IPBES 2018a111; Lal 2016112; Racine 2008113; UNCCD 2017114). Greve, P., M.L. Bazza,M.,M. Kay, andC. Knutson, 2018: Drought Characteristics and Management in North Africa and the Near East. Res., 63, 99113, doi:10.3354/cr01285. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Parry, M.L., O.F. (2009)889 found a decrease in sand dune movement by 2039 (increasing thereafter) when assessing future wind-erosion-driven desertification in arid and semi-arid China using a range of SRES scenarios and HadCM3 simulations. Overall, there is high confidence that responding to droughts through ex post drought relief measures is less efficient compared to ex ante investments into drought risk mitigation, particularly under climate change. Environ. Environ. Gray, 2006: Airborne microorganisms in the African desert dust corridor over the mid-Atlantic ridge, Ocean Drilling Program, Leg 209. Steady increases in the exposed and vulnerable populations are seen for increasing global mean temperatures. Climate change is happening: it is likely that the risk of heat-related death and illness has increased. Literature suggests that climate change decreases wind erosion/dust emission overall, with regional variation (low confidence). Environ., 115, 692702, doi:10.1016/J.RSE.2010.10.011. Today, 12 ships are to leave their ports towards Istanbul, with four going in the opposite direction. To know what temperature target is appropriate it is necessary, then, to have an account of our responsibilities to future generations and to know how much weight, if any, to attribute to their interests. L. Degrad. Ecosystems, 16, 3446, doi:10.1007/s10021-012-9594-3. 2013172; Eitelberg et al. Ratna Reddy, V., M. Gopinath Reddy, S. Galab, J. Soussan, and O. Springate-Baginski, 2004: Participatory watershed development in India: Can it sustain rural livelihoods? A prime example is the green sea turtle, whose sex is determined by the temperature of the sand around its egg as it develops. Agric. In 1992, the 17 principles were distributed to thousands of environmental activists from around the globe who gathered in Rio de Janeiro for the U.N. Earth Summit. In CMIP5 scenarios, Mediterranean types of climate are projected to become drier (Alessandri et al. Mackie, andK.A. Urban areas are attracting an increasing number of rural residents across the developing world (Angel et al. Qadir, M., A.D. Noble, A.S. Qureshi, R.K. Gupta, T. Yuldashev, and A. Karimov, 2009: Salt-induced land and water degradation in the Aral Sea Basin: A challenge to sustainable agriculture in Central Asia. 138. Risk Manag., 24, 1329, doi:10.1016/J.CRM.2019.04.002. Econ., 122, 127146, doi:10.1016/J.JDEVECO.2016.05.004. Rodriguez-Caballero, E., J. Belnap, B. Bdel, P.J. 2012232; Andela et al. Res., 3, 7785, doi:10.1016/j.iswcr.2015.06.008. Biogeosciences, 6, 469477, doi:10.5194/bg-6-469-2009. Niedermeyer, E.M., M. Prange, S. Mulitza, G. Mollenhauer, E. Schefu, and M. Schulz, 2009: Extratropical forcing of Sahel aridity during Heinrich stadials. Kazmerski, 2016: Dust and soiling issues and impacts relating to solar energy systems: Literature review update for 20122015. Although the impact of climate change on fire frequency and intensity may not be clear due to its differing impact on fuel accumulation, suitable weather conditions and sources of ignition (Abatzoglou et al. Climate change is mostly caused by the greenhouse gases that are released when burning coal, oil, and gas. There is medium evidence and low agreement that climate change and desertification contribute to already existing conflict potentials (Herrero 2006768; von Uexkull et al. Background paper for the High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda. 85106. 2008501; Neuer et al. Low soil water availability promotes soil microbial respiration, yet there is insufficient moisture to stimulate plant productivity (Austin et al. 20171724). Shackleton, 2004: Use of woodland resources for direct household provisioning. Nkonya, E, T. Johnson, H.Y. INSInet Publication. Belala,F. et al., 2018: Rainfall patterns of Algerian steppes and the impacts on natural vegetation in the 20th century. The countries expected to be affected include Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua. What is particularly relevant in the context of the present assessment is to evaluate if, how and which human drivers of desertification will be modified by climate change effects. Afr. 2016191; Mythili and Goedecke 2016192; Sow et al. 2016a1234). Dokken,K.J. Soc., 16 (1): 28, doi:10.5751/ES-03703-160128. Seneviratne, 1999: Assessment of future changes in water availability and aridity. Total Environ., 478, 111, doi:10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2014.01.063. Abideen,Z. et al., 2014: Sustainable biofuel production from non-food sources? Ford, T.W., and C.F. 20171319). Tambo, J.A., and T. Wnscher, 2015: Identification and prioritization of farmers innovations in northern Ghana. Karl, andD.C. Peters, 2017: Breaks in MODIS time series portend vegetation change: Verification using long-term data in an arid grassland ecosystem. An official website of the United States government. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Prosopis was introduced in the 1970s and has since spread rapidly. The first is capacity and resource constraints at most levels. Climate change and desertification are not the sole drivers of food insecurity, but especially in the areas with high dependence on agriculture, they are among the main contributors. Glob. Zhu, Z. et al., 2016: Greening of the Earth and its drivers. Int., 311, 181188, doi:10.1016/J.QUAINT.2013.07.003. Monit. Climate change will reinforce the need for such proactive drought risk mitigation approaches. Hamidov, A., K. Helming, and D. Balla, 2016: Impact of agricultural land use in Central Asia: A review. Hydrol., 375, 6577, doi:10.1016/J.JHYDROL.2009.01.032. (2015) shows that socio-economic factors were dominant in causing desertification in north Shanxi, China, between 1983 and 2012, accounting for about 80% of desertification expansion. Biological soil crust protection may be an effective measure to reduce cheatgrass germination, as biocrust disturbance has been shown to be a key factor promoting germination of non-native grasses (Hernandez and Sandquist 2011). 20151113; Yu et al. Abatzoglou,S.M. Eriksen, S. Ma, L.N. I thought climate change was just an insurance scam by the wealthy. Environ. Schlenker and Lobell (2010)955 estimated that in sub-Saharan Africa, crop production may be reduced by 1722% due to climate change by 2050. However, there are also cases when they did not improve SLM where they were not strictly enforced (Teshome et al. The increase of temperatures and variable pattern of rainfall over the central, north and south-western regions of Saudi Arabia may pose challenges for sustainable water resource management (Tarawneh and Chowdhury 20181687). University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.pp. Arid Environ., 103, 3645, doi:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2013.12.009. Chambers,J.C. et al., 2014: Resilience to stress and disturbance, and resistance to Bromus tectorumL. Invasion in cold desert shrublands of western North America. (ed.)]. Arent, J. Barnett, R. Betts, T.E. Water SA, 42, 63, doi:10.4314/wsa.v42i1.08. (2017)371 also found widespread greening over Australia including eastern Australia over the post-drought period. Oroda, A.S., 2001: Application of remote sensing to early warning for food security and environmental monitoring in the Horn of Africa. Pomposi, C., A. Giannini, Y. Kushnir, and D.E. Phys. Kessler RC, Galea S, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA, Ursano RJ, Wessely S. Trends in mental illness and suicidality after Hurricane Katrina, Five years later: recovery from post traumatic stress and psychological distress among low-income mothers affected by Hurricane Katrina. Hoerling, M. et al., 2006: Detection and attribution of 20th century northern and southern African. Rangeland management systems based on sustainable grazing and re-vegetation increase rangeland productivity and the flow of ecosystem services (high confidence). 2015267), which constitutes land degradation since it leads to losses in economic productivity of affected areas but appears as a greening in the satellite data. 2015980; Derpsch et al. Many animals are moving to higher elevations and latitudes to escape warming temperatures, but climate change may be happening too quickly for most species to outrun it. Rutledge, S., D.I. ), 2012: Advances in Soil Science: Soil Water and Agronomic Productivity. All in all, there is high confidence that anthropogenic and climatic drivers interact in complex ways in causing desertification. Herrmann, S.M., and T.K. Environ., 114, 106115, doi:10.1016/J.RSE.2009.08.014. Ecol. 20141670). Derpsch,R.,T. Friedrich,A. Kassam, andL. Hongwen, 2010: Current status of adoption of no-till farming in the world and some of its main benefits. Springerplus, 2, 19, doi:10.1186/2193-1801-2-100. 2017211; Sietz et al. Lal, R., 2009: Sequestering carbon in soils of arid ecosystems. In Central Chile, dryland forest and shrubland area was reduced by 1.7% and 0.7%, respectively, between 1975 and 2008 (Schulz et al. Policy Stud. 2016746; Maliszewski et al. Sanandiya, N.D., and A.K. Oecologia, 141, 221235, doi:10.1007/s00442-004-1519-1. Soc. Policy Pract.,2,4, doi:10.1186/2041-7136-2-4. Eekhout,J. andJ. de Vente, 2019: Assessing the effectiveness of Sustainable Land Management for large-scale climate change adaptation. J. Extensive woody plant encroachment altered runoff and soil erosion across much of the drylands, because the bare soil between shrubs is very susceptible to water erosion, mainly in high-intensity rainfall events (Manjoro et al. Antinori,P., andV. Vallerani, 1994: Experiments in water harvesting technology with the dolphin and train ploughs. and maple (Acer sp.) Animals that cannot adapt to changing environments are in danger. Desertification also tends to increase albedo, decreasing the energy available at the surface and associated surface temperatures, producing a negative feedback on climate change (high confidence). (2013)776 by studying only violent conflicts. 20181719). Spring, andC.H. Front. and consequently live in structures that cannot withstand a hurricane. Res., 47, 280291, doi:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2009.00590.x. 20161223). Over-extraction is leading to groundwater depletion in many dryland areas (high confidence) (Mudd 2000559; Mays 2013560; Mahmod and Watanabe 2014561; Jolly et al. Klingmller, K., A. Pozzer, S. Metzger, G.L. Clim., 27, 383397, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00100.1. Earth-Science Rev., 161, 259278, doi:10.1016/J.EARSCIREV.2016.08.003. Mirzabaev, A., J. Goedecke, O. Dubovyk, U. Djanibekov, Q.B. Walker and B.H. Population growth, migration into Jordan and changes in climate have resulted in desertification of the Jordan Badia region. 2017996; Wilhelm and Wortmann 2004997). J. 20171202; Steger et al. Replacing car trips by increasing bike and public transport in the greater Barcelona metropolitan area: a health impact assessment study, Moving urban trips from cars to bicycles: impact on health and emissions. Wicke, B., E.M.W. (2006)887 and Mahowald (2007)888 found that climate change led to a decrease in desert dust source areas globally using CMIP3 GCMs. (2016)1807 estimated that 166 Mha can be restored in the Sahel, requiring the restoration of 10 Mha per year to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality targets by 2030. et al., 2010: Food Security, Farming, and Climate Change to 2050: Scenarios, Results, Policy Options. Cook, A. OGrady, and D. Eamus, 2005: Groundwater use by vegetation in a tropical savanna riparian zone (Daly River, Australia). Catena, 81, 111, doi:10.1016/j.catena.2010.01.001. 2009591; Hao et al. 2013874; China: Yin et al. et al., 2013: Changing climate and overgrazing are decimating Mongolian steppes. Sci, 20, 13551372, doi:10.5194/hess-20-1355-2016. All he needs to do is renegotiate the trade and cooperation agreement (TCA) and create a customs union with the EU. Dis., 15, 6172, doi:10.1089/fpd.2017.2389. Devine,A.P.,R.A. McDonald,T. Quaife, andI.M.D. 2015786; McLeman 2011787; Sherbinin and Bai 2018788) and in particular, these recent estimates provide an important insight into potential future developments, the quantitative projections are still based on the number of people exposed to risk rather than the number of people who would actually engage in migration as a response to this risk (Gemenne 2011789; McLeman 2013790) and they do not take into account individual agency in migration decision nor adaptive capacities of individuals (Hartmann 2010791; Kniveton et al. Achite,M., andS. Ouillon, 2007: Suspended sediment transport in asemi-arid watershed, Wadi Abd, Algeria (19731995). Environ. Once production volumes and the share of renewable energyin electricity generation increases, the carbon footprint calculation is a different one. Collapse of the Saharas megafauna. 2011295; Brandt et al. OConnor, T. G, J.R. Puttick, and M.T. Sci. Clim., 22, 37293750, doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2752.1. 2013429). Biol., 21, 38363845, doi:10.1111/gcb.12957. Ocean. 2007989; Narayanamoorthy 2010990; Niaz et al. Not with a bang like Boris, but with a whimper. Biol., 20, 33133328, doi:10.1111/gcb.12581. Mosley, L., 2014: Drought impacts on the water quality of freshwater systems; Review and integration. Ecol. Global Biogeochem. 2011281) and to understand the causes of observed vegetation changes. Res. Eventually, the treated gully areas silt up and dense vegetation cover can re-establish. Glob. Turkish J. Eng. The movement of labour from agriculture to non-agricultural sectors is determined by relative labour productivities in these sectors (Shiferaw and Djido 20161421). In: Climate and Land Degradation [Sivakumar, M.V. The latter is indirectly corroborated by observations of the impact of community-based rangeland management organisations in Mongolia. Glob. Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA, pp. 2010569; Hoffmann et al. R. Soc. Science, 4946, 10431048, doi:10.1126/science.247.4946.1043. Disaster Risk Reduct., 17, 8594, doi:10.1016/J.IJDRR.2016.04.005. et al., 2011: Human-mediated introductions of Australian acacias A global experiment in biogeography. 2015119), ranging from approximately 20 Gt yr1 to more than 200 Gt yr1 (Boix-Fayos et al. Agric. Reynolds, J.F. Reliable, relevant and timely climate and weather information helps respond to droughts appropriately (Sivakumar and Ndiangui 20071461). Chang., 21, S108S120, doi:10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2011.08.004. J. World Dev., 40, 134145, doi:10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2011.05.023. Popul. Dunne, 2016: Potential evapotranspiration and continental drying. Sustain. It is therefore often highlighted as a practical response to dryness (i.e., long-term aridity and low seasonal precipitation) and rainfall variability, both of which are projected to become more acute over time in some dryland areas (Dile et al. Mainguet, M. and F. Dumay, 2011: Fighting Wind Erosion. While large uncertainty exists concerning trends in droughts globally (AR5) (Section 2.2), examining the drought data by Ziese et al. Sustainable development of drylands and their resilience to combined challenges of desertification and climate change will thus also depend on the ability of governments to promote policies for economic diversification within agriculture and in non-agricultural sectors in order make dryland areas less vulnerable to desertification and climate change. Despite the availability of numerous options that contribute to combating desertification, climate change adaptation and mitigation, there are also chances of maladaptive actions (medium confidence) (see Glossary). Natl. Available assessments of the global extent and severity of desertification are relatively crude approximations with considerable uncertainties, for example, due to confounding effects of invasive bush encroachment in some dryland regions. Acad. (2011) indicated that Parthenium caused a 69% decline in the density of herbaceous species in Awash National Park within a few years of introduction. 27, Beirut, Lebanon, 141 pp., doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1713.1365. Huber and Fensholt (2011)134 explored the relationship between SST anomalies and satellite observed Sahel vegetation dynamics, finding similar relationships but with substantial westeast variations in both the significant SST regions and the vegetation response. (2014) indicated that providing improved access to alternative energy sources such as solar energy and biogas could help reduce the use of fuelwood in south-western China, thus alleviating the spread of rocky desertification. Source: Stefan Strohmeier. Blanco, M.A. Similarly, the rate of rangeland degradation is now increasing because of environmental changes and overexploitation of resources (Kassahun et al. Socio-economic impacts of desertification and climate change with the SDG framework. Everybody liked him, except the electorate. The stakes are high: failure means not only that people of color will continue facing disproportionate environmental hazards, but also the possible failure of efforts to reduce emissions and take humanity off a crash course with dangerous global warming. It is a 3 Mha band of plantation running from east to west (Figure 3.12). This means that when there is a benefit to having a plastic response to the environment, this can be favored by natural selection Some traits (like behaviors) may be more likely to be plastic than others.. Thus, ensuring womens rights means accepting women as equal members of the community and citizens of the state (Nelson et al. Qishlaqi, A., F. Moore, and G. Forghani, 2008: Impact of untreated wastewater irrigation on soils and crops in Shiraz suburban area, SW Iran. Tails of such distributions contain catastrophesrare high-consequence events.198,199 Economists and risk managers have focused on tail risk in climate change, asking how much society should spend to reduce these risks.200 This question is familiar to homeowners who insure against the small but devastating possibility of a house fire and to physicians who treat patients when withholding treatment entails even a small risk of catastrophic outcome. 20101080). Econ., 63, 95117, doi:10.1007/s10640-014-9843-3. In addition, the impacts of dust and sand storms on human welfare, ecosystems, crop productivity and animal health are not measured, particularly in the highly affected regions such as the Sahel, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. While the modelling efforts have greatly improved over the years (Hunter et al. (2016)891 project a decrease in African dust emission associated with a slowdown of the tropical circulation in the high CO2 RCP8.5 scenario. 20131108; Weltz and Spaeth 20121109). In relation to representation and authority to make decisions in land management and governance, womens participation remains lacking particularly in the dryland regions. Lybbert, T.J., C.B. Konare, A. et al., 2008: A regional climate modeling study of the effect of desert dust on the West African monsoon. 99116. Policy, 55, 208217, doi:10.1016/J.ENVSCI.2015.10.010. Sud, and G.K. Walker, 2009: A GCM study of the response of the atmospheric water cycle of West Africa and the Atlantic to Saharan dust radiative forcing. Collective Action for Sustainable Pastoralism. Whitford, W.G., 1997: Desertification and animal biodiversity in the desert grasslands of North America. Betts,R.A. et al., 2018: Changes in climate extremes, fresh water availability and vulnerability to food insecurity projected at1.5C and 2C global warming with ahigher-resolution global climate model. Pastoralists derive more than 50% of their income from livestock and livestock products, whereas agropastoralists generate more than 50% of their income from crop production and at least 25% from livestock production (Swift,1988). Chang., 34, 3547, doi:10.1016/J.GLOENVCHA.2015.04.007. Prince, S.D., 2016: Where Does Desertification Occur? Verburg, 2015: Areview of global potentially available cropland estimates and their consequences for model-based assessments. 20131125). J., 114, 750777, doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2004.00242.x. A recent alternative approach to differentiating woody from herbaceous vegetation involves the combined use of optical/infrared-based vegetation indices, indicating greenness, with microwave based Vegetation Optical Depth (VOD) which is sensitive to both woody and leafy vegetation components (Andela et al. The Green Dam extends across arid and semi-arid zones between the isohyets 300 mm and 200 mm. There is robust evidence and high agreement showing that migration decisions are influenced by a complex set of different factors, with desertification and climate change playing relatively lesser roles (Liehr et al. Lett., 7, 34032, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034032. Atmos., 109, D04203: 124 D04203,n/a, doi:10.1029/2003JD004085. Environ., 33, 129145, doi:10.1016/0167-8809(90)90238-9. Something new is needed. It is not even clear that the deadlock will be resolved after the elections. The 2-litre car (per 100km driven) was a realistic development proposition, but this is now not going to happen. Biol., 18, 14011411, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02628.x. Policies aiming at improving market access, that is the ability to access output and input markets at lower costs, help farmers and livestock producers earn more profit from their produce. Sustain. Near Amman, Jordan. World Bank Res. The experience of previous years has led to integrated rangeland management, improved tree and fodder shrub plantations and the development of water conservation techniques. L. Degrad. Ecosphere, 9, doi:10.1002/ecs2.2330. The COVID-19 pandemic has hit African Americans especially hard, killing them at twice the rate of their white counterparts. This has important implications for climate change mitigation efforts using the expansion of solar and wind energy generation in dryland areas for substituting fossil fuels. 20171099). (2018)949 found a mixed response of water availability (runoff) in dryland catchments to global temperature increases from 1.5C to 2C. Reg. Chem. A further measure that can be of increasing importance under climate change is rainwater harvesting (RWH), including traditional zai (small basins used to capture surface runoff), earthen bunds and ridges (Nyamadzawo et al. 2016941). Dr Haines reported that he was the review editor for the health chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Working Group II, Assessment Report 5. 20001120). Randel, 2007: Recent widening of the tropical belt: Evidence from tropopause observations. Econ., 26, i11i35, doi:10.1093/jae/ejx009. 2016a269, b270; Evans and Geerken 2006271; Geerken 2009272; Geerken et al. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Ecol. Atmos. J. Biol. 2013475; Lamontagne et al. In Russia, at the beginning of the 2000s, about 7% of the total area (that is, approximately 130 Mha) was threatened by desertification (Gunin and Pankova 2004385; Kust et al. Int. Han, G., X. Hao, M. Zhao, M. Wang, B.H. Ben Hassine,H.,A. Ben Slimane,M. Mlawah,L. Albouchi, andA. Gandouzi, 2013: Effects of underground water on soil salinity and dates production in Kebili Oases Area (Tunisia): The case of El Bahaier Oasis. Omuto, C.T., R.R. Canziani, J.P.Palutikof, P.J. Current estimates of the extent and severity of desertification vary greatly due to missing and/or unreliable information (Gibbs and Salmon 2015213). 2016125), there is limited evidence concerning climate change impacts on wind erosion (Tables 4.1 and 4.2 in Chapter 4, and Section 3.5). J. Environ. Using multiple extreme-event attribution methodologies, Uhe et al. Evan,A.T.,C. Flamant,M. Gaetani, andF. Guichard, 2016: The past, present and future of African dust. 2005526; Maestre et al. Mueller, V., C. Gray, and K. Kosec, 2014: Heat stress increases long-term human migration in rural Pakistan. State Forestry Administration of China, 2015: A Bulletin of Desertification and Sandification State of China. Yield decreases of up to 2060 3.6.2 )., 21,, You can join a club M. Ozturk ( eds. ) ] be barriers for some of these quality. 1C ( Evan et al, 56 articles were selected 124 D04203, n/a doi:10.1029/2003JD004085 Fertilisation relationship described in detail in this Section such species, Bogar S, Harvell CD 387393. (! Bunn, P. DOdorico, A., 2012: valuation conomique des cots conomiques et sociaux de la.. In subversive networks abroad black or Hispanic neighborhoods, the Dakhla oasis in Egypts desert Atmospheric movement of sand and mineral dust and sand storm activity over the vehicle 's lifetime, 1993 an Turtlesaround the Great Basin method to VOD nair, and markets Wungrampha, V. G.. 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